I don’t want an AST in my hobby compiler. I’m not going to use it for analysis—it would just be a stepping stone representation on the way to the thing I really want, which is an SSA CFG. So I decided to parse straight from tokens into an SSA IR. I ran into some issues, fixed them, and would like to share the implementation. Maybe it’s a normal strategy, maybe it’s not.
I’ve always been a little nervous around parsers so I decided to lean into it and get familiar with precedence climbing. I’d already written something similar for a little math AST so I figured I would be able to reasonably easily port that to my new project.
I was mostly right. For example, here is the (fairly direct) Rust port that
turns expressions into IR instead of AST. The only difference is that instead
of pointers, nodes hold onto IDs, and they are linearized in a big
Vec1 (hence push_op and push_insn).
impl Parser<'_> {
// Recursive parse function for expressions (statements handled elsewhere)
fn parse_(&mut self, mut env: &mut Env, prec: u32)
-> Result<InsnId, ParseError> {
let mut lhs = match self.tokens.next() {
None => return Err(ParseError::UnexpectedEof),
Some(Token::Bool(value)) => {
self.push_op(Opcode::Const(Value::Bool(value)))
}
// ...
Some(Token::LParen) => {
let result = self.parse_(&mut env, 0)?;
self.expect(Token::RParen)?;
result
}
Some(token) => return Err(ParseError::UnexpectedToken(token)),
};
while let Some(token) = self.tokens.peek() {
let (assoc, op_prec) = match token {
// ...
Token::Plus => (Assoc::Any, 4),
Token::Minus => (Assoc::Left, 4),
Token::Star => (Assoc::Any, 5),
// ...
_ => break,
};
let token = token.clone();
if op_prec < prec { return lhs; }
self.tokens.next();
let next_prec =
if assoc == Assoc::Left { op_prec + 1 } else { op_prec };
// ...
let opcode = match token {
// ...
Token::Plus => Opcode::Add,
Token::Minus => Opcode::Sub,
Token::Star => Opcode::Mul,
_ => panic!("Unexpected token {token:?}"),
};
let rhs = self.parse_(&mut env, next_prec)?;
lhs = self.push_insn(opcode, smallvec![lhs, rhs]);
}
lhs
}
}
This started mostly fine (parsing 1 + 2 to an AST is very similar to parsing
to the IR) but I quickly ran into a problem: what about names?
See, evaluating a name like abc in the expression 1 + abc is fine if you
have all of the environment plumbing: look it up in the env. In this
compiler, that means find the stack slot that we’ve assigned for it in this
scope and emit a load from that stack slot.
impl Parser<'_> {
fn parse_(&mut self, mut env: &mut Env, prec: u32)
-> Result<InsnId, ParseError> {
let mut lhs = match self.tokens.next() {
None => return Err(ParseError::UnexpectedEof),
// ...
Some(Token::Ident(name)) => {
let name = self.prog.intern(&name);
let slot = env.lookup(name)?;
self.push_insn(Opcode::Load(slot), smallvec![self.frame()])
}
// ...
Some(token) => return Err(ParseError::UnexpectedToken(token)),
};
// ...
}
}
But assignments to names are also expressions! a = 5 is a perfectly valid
expression and we should not evaluate a. In fact, we should find the stack
slot of a, wait until it’s assigned to, and then generate a store (or if
it’s not assigned to, emit the load).
Here’s the subtle thing (at least for me): parsing to an AST doesn’t have this problem because it implies two things:
Name "foo" AST node or
something)In IR land, we’re trying to eagerly emit IR and resolve names to offsets at the same time.
The way I solved this first was by doing some kind of lookahead in the Ident
case for lhs. If the next token is an equals sign, parse right and emit an
assignment. That worked fine for a bit, but has two problems:
For attribute assignments like a.b.c = 5, we do want to evaluate a.b, but
we do not want to evaluate a.b.c. We want to wait until we either see an
equals sign (and store to a.b.c) or see this expression get used elsewhere
and then do the load then.
After talking with Andy Chu of Oils fame (whose name is the first that comes to mind when I think of precedence climbing) and some faffing about, I think I figured out a neat enough API for this.
The key is to be able to defer evaluation just a little longer until we know more about the context. To do that, we add an enum that can hold one of three things (or more, if you allow array assignment):
pub enum LValue {
Insn(InsnId),
Name(NameId),
Attr(InsnId, NameId),
}
The Insn case represents an evaluated expression. It can be used for its
value immediately.
The Name case represents an un-evaluated name for use in either loads or
stores.
The Attr case represents an un-evaluated attribute lookup for use in either
loads or stores. The left hand side (the receiver, if you will) has already
been evaluated—it’s an InsnId, and therefore also committed to the IR
buffer—but the right hand side has not.
This LValue enum will only be used temporarily in the lhs variable. We add
two new special cases to handle it:
Store or StoreAttr in this case)Attr
LValueIf we ever want to return this LValue from parse_ or use it as part of a
larger expression (say, lhs + rhs), we will need to convert it to an InsnId
by evaluating it. That function is called lvalue_as_rvalue.
impl Parser<'_> {
fn parse_(&mut self, mut env: &mut Env, prec: u32)
-> Result<InsnId, ParseError> {
let mut lhs = match self.tokens.next() {
None => return Err(ParseError::UnexpectedEof),
// ...
Some(Token::Bool(value)) => {
LValue::Insn(self.push_op(Opcode::Const(Value::Bool(value))))
}
Some(Token::Ident(name)) => {
LValue::Name(self.prog.intern(&name))
}
// ...
Some(token) => return Err(ParseError::UnexpectedToken(token)),
};
while let Some(token) = self.tokens.peek() {
let (assoc, op_prec) = match token {
Token::Equal => (Assoc::Right, 0), // NEW!
// ...
Token::Plus => (Assoc::Any, 4),
// ...
_ => break,
};
let token = token.clone();
if op_prec < prec { return self.lvalue_as_rvalue(env, lhs); }
self.tokens.next();
let next_prec =
if assoc == Assoc::Left { op_prec + 1 } else { op_prec };
// Special case: we need to look up the frame slot and write to it
// or assign to the attribute
if token == Token::Equal { // NEW!
lhs = match lhs {
LValue::Insn(..) =>
return Err(ParseError::CannotAssignTo(lhs)),
LValue::Name(name) => {
let rhs = self.parse_(&mut env, next_prec)?;
self.store_local(&mut env, name, rhs)?;
lhs
}
LValue::Attr(obj, name) => {
let rhs = self.parse_(&mut env, next_prec)?;
let obj = self.push_insn(Opcode::GuardInstance, smallvec![obj]);
self.push_insn(Opcode::StoreAttr(name), smallvec![obj, rhs]);
LValue::Insn(rhs)
}
};
continue;
}
// Special case: we need to hold off evaluating the attribute until
// it is read elsewhere or written
if token == Token::Dot { // NEW!
let name = self.expect_ident()?;
let obj = self.lvalue_as_rvalue(env, lhs)?;
lhs = LValue::Attr(obj, name);
continue;
}
// Evaluate the lvalue because we want to use it in a binary
// operation
let mut lhs_value = self.lvalue_as_rvalue(env, lhs)?; // NEW!
// ...
lhs = LValue::Insn(self.push_insn(opcode, smallvec![lhs_value, rhs]));
}
self.lvalue_as_rvalue(env, lhs) // NEW!
}
fn lvalue_as_rvalue(&mut self, env: &Env, lvalue: LValue)
-> Result<InsnId, ParseError> {
match lvalue {
LValue::Insn(insn_id) => Ok(insn_id),
LValue::Name(name) => self.load_local(env, name),
LValue::Attr(obj, name) => {
let obj = self.push_insn(Opcode::GuardInstance, smallvec![obj]);
Ok(self.push_insn(Opcode::LoadAttr(name), smallvec![obj]))
}
}
}
}
This seems to work pretty well for all of my parser tests and also seems extensible to array assignments (if I add them in the future).
In conclusion, I feel a little less nervous around parsers now.
For more reading on this, check out Flattening ASTs by Adrian Sampson and this Reddit comment by Bob Nystrom of Crafting Interpreters fame. The comment is reproduced here:
(quoting the OP)
I can imagine, while parsing, whenever you created a new node, rather than allocating space just for it and giving the parent node the pointer, you could push the node onto a vector or some other such growable contiguous array and give the parent a reference to that spot.
Yes, that will definitely help! Once you do that, you may consider other stepwise refinements.
Ta-da, you just reinvented stack-based bytecode. ↩